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Electric vehicles are becoming an increasingly important part of modern transportation. As more drivers switch from gasoline and diesel vehicles to battery-electric vehicles, one of the most common questions is simple: How much does it cost to charge an electric vehicle?

The answer depends on several variables. Battery capacity, electricity prices, charging efficiency, vehicle energy consumption, charging location, charging speed, public charging fees, driving habits, weather, and mileage can all affect the final cost.

This is why an Electric Vehicle Charging Cost Calculator can be such a useful financial planning tool.

Instead of relying on general claims about EV savings, drivers can enter their own information and estimate what they are likely to spend on electricity. A calculator can show the cost of a single charging session, the cost per mile, monthly charging expenses, annual electricity costs, and even the expected cost of an EV road trip.

This comprehensive guide explains how EV charging costs are calculated, how home charging compares with public charging, how electricity rates affect operating costs, and how drivers can use an EV charging calculator to build a realistic transportation budget.

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What Is an Electric Vehicle Charging Cost Calculator?

An Electric Vehicle Charging Cost Calculator is a digital financial and energy tool that estimates the cost of supplying electricity to an electric vehicle.

The calculator may use several inputs, including:

• EV battery capacity
• Starting battery percentage
• Desired battery percentage
• Electricity cost per kWh
• Charging efficiency
• Vehicle energy efficiency
• Driving distance
• Public charging rate
• Charging session fees
• Membership fees
• Idle fees
• Charging frequency

The simplest calculation is:

Charging Cost = Electricity Used × Electricity Price

For example, if an EV receives 40 kWh and electricity costs $0.18 per kWh:

40 × $0.18 = $7.20

The estimated energy cost is $7.20.

However, a more accurate calculator can account for charging losses. If charging efficiency is 90%, the vehicle may need approximately 44.44 kWh from the electrical supply to store 40 kWh in the battery.

The calculation becomes:

40 ÷ 0.90 = 44.44 kWh

Then:

44.44 × $0.18 = $8.00

The actual charging expense is therefore approximately $8 instead of $7.20.

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Why EV Charging Costs Matter

One of the biggest advantages of electric vehicles is the ability to replace gasoline purchases with electricity purchases.

However, the cost advantage is not identical for every driver.

Two EV owners can operate the same vehicle and have dramatically different charging expenses.

For example, one driver may charge:

• At home
• Overnight
• During off-peak hours
• At a low electricity rate

Another driver may charge:

• Primarily at public stations
• During peak travel periods
• Using high-speed DC charging
• At a higher per-kWh rate

The first driver could spend considerably less per mile.

Therefore, understanding individual charging economics is more useful than relying on a single average EV charging cost.

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Understanding kWh

The abbreviation kWh means kilowatt-hour.

It is a unit of energy commonly used on electricity bills.

EV batteries are also rated in kWh.

For example, a vehicle might have:

• 50 kWh battery
• 60 kWh battery
• 75 kWh battery
• 82 kWh battery
• 100 kWh battery
• 110 kWh battery

A 75 kWh battery can theoretically store approximately 75 kWh of energy.

However, the amount of energy required to travel a certain distance depends on the vehicle’s efficiency.

A highly efficient EV might consume 25 kWh per 100 miles, while a larger electric SUV could consume 35 kWh or more per 100 miles.

Battery capacity therefore tells you how much energy the vehicle can store, while efficiency tells you how far that energy can take the vehicle.

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The Basic Charging Cost Formula

The fundamental equation is:

Charging Cost = kWh × Electricity Rate

Suppose:

• Electricity used = 50 kWh
• Electricity rate = $0.16/kWh

Then:

50 × $0.16 = $8.00

The charging energy costs $8.

This formula is useful for quick estimates.

However, when calculating real-world EV costs, additional variables should be considered.

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Charging Losses

Electricity does not move from the grid into an EV battery with perfect efficiency.

Some energy can be lost through:

• Heat
• Electrical resistance
• Charging equipment
• Power conversion
• Battery management systems
• Thermal management
• Vehicle electronics

Suppose the battery needs 45 kWh and charging efficiency is 90%.

Grid energy required:

45 ÷ 0.90 = 50 kWh

If electricity costs $0.18/kWh:

50 × $0.18 = $9

Without accounting for charging losses, the estimated cost would have been:

45 × $0.18 = $8.10

The difference is $0.90.

One charging session may not make a large difference, but repeated charging throughout the year can make the difference meaningful.

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How to Calculate the Cost of Charging From 20% to 80%

Many EV drivers charge between specific battery percentages rather than charging from completely empty to completely full.

Suppose the EV has a 75 kWh battery.

Starting battery:

20%

Target battery:

80%

Battery percentage added:

60%

Energy stored:

75 × 0.60 = 45 kWh

At 90% charging efficiency:

45 ÷ 0.90 = 50 kWh

At $0.17/kWh:

50 × $0.17 = $8.50

Therefore, the estimated charging cost is $8.50.

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How to Calculate a Full EV Charge

Suppose an EV has a usable battery capacity of 80 kWh.

At different electricity rates:

Electricity Rate	Theoretical Cost
$0.10/kWh	$8.00
$0.15/kWh	$12.00
$0.20/kWh	$16.00
$0.25/kWh	$20.00
$0.30/kWh	$24.00
$0.40/kWh	$32.00

These figures represent battery energy before accounting for charging losses.

If charging efficiency is 90%, the actual grid energy required would be:

80 ÷ 0.90 = 88.89 kWh

At $0.20/kWh:

88.89 × $0.20 = $17.78

This provides a more realistic estimate.

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Cost Per Mile

Cost per mile is often more useful than the cost of a full battery.

Suppose:

• EV consumption = 30 kWh/100 miles
• Electricity rate = $0.18/kWh

Energy cost per 100 miles:

30 × $0.18 = $5.40

Cost per mile:

$5.40 ÷ 100 = $0.054

Therefore:

Cost per mile = 5.4 cents

For 1,000 miles:

1,000 × $0.054 = $54

This makes it easier to estimate monthly and annual operating costs.

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Cost Per 100 Miles

The cost per 100 miles is particularly useful when comparing EVs with gasoline vehicles.

Suppose an EV consumes 28 kWh per 100 miles.

Electricity price:

$0.20/kWh

Then:

28 × $0.20 = $5.60

The vehicle uses approximately $5.60 of electricity per 100 miles.

This can be compared with a gasoline vehicle’s cost for the same distance.

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EV vs. Gasoline Cost Comparison

Suppose a gasoline vehicle achieves 30 miles per gallon.

Gasoline price:

$3.60/gallon

Fuel required for 100 miles:

100 ÷ 30 = 3.333 gallons

Fuel cost:

3.333 × $3.60 = $12.00

Now suppose an EV consumes 30 kWh per 100 miles at $0.18/kWh.

EV energy cost:

30 × $0.18 = $5.40

Difference:

$12.00 − $5.40 = $6.60

The EV would save approximately $6.60 per 100 miles under these assumptions.

At 15,000 miles per year:

150 × $6.60 = $990

The estimated annual energy-cost difference would be approximately $990.

Actual savings vary based on real-world efficiency, energy prices, driving conditions, and charging location.

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Home Charging Cost

Home charging is one of the most important factors in EV ownership economics.

Suppose a household electricity rate is:

$0.16/kWh

The EV uses 350 kWh per month.

Monthly energy cost:

350 × $0.16 = $56

If charging losses result in 10% additional grid consumption:

350 ÷ 0.90 = 388.89 kWh

Adjusted cost:

388.89 × $0.16 = $62.22

Therefore, a realistic monthly estimate may be around $62.

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Level 1 Charging

Level 1 charging generally uses a standard household electrical outlet.

Its major advantage is simplicity.

It can be appropriate for:

• Low-mileage drivers
• Overnight charging
• Secondary vehicles
• Drivers without high daily mileage

The charging speed is relatively slow.

However, charging speed does not automatically determine electricity cost.

If 15 kWh is delivered to the vehicle and the electricity rate is $0.15/kWh:

15 × $0.15 = $2.25

The same amount of energy would cost $2.25 regardless of whether it was delivered slowly or quickly, assuming the electricity rate is identical and ignoring efficiency differences.

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Level 2 Charging

Level 2 charging is substantially faster and is widely used for home EV charging.

A Level 2 charger may be particularly useful for drivers who:

• Travel long distances
• Drive daily
• Need overnight replenishment
• Want faster home charging

The main financial question remains the electricity rate.

If 40 kWh is charged at $0.17/kWh:

40 × $0.17 = $6.80

Charging equipment installation is a separate expense and should not be confused with the ongoing electricity cost.

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DC Fast Charging

DC fast charging is designed to provide energy much more rapidly.

It is particularly useful for:

• Road trips
• Highway travel
• Emergency charging
• Commercial fleets
• Drivers without home charging

Public DC fast charging may have higher rates than home electricity.

Suppose:

• Energy = 45 kWh
• Public rate = $0.42/kWh

Energy cost:

45 × $0.42 = $18.90

If a $1.50 session fee applies:

$18.90 + $1.50 = $20.40

This demonstrates why public charging costs can vary considerably.

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Public Charging Fees

Public charging networks may use several pricing structures.

Possible charges include:

• Per-kWh price
• Per-minute price
• Session fee
• Parking fee
• Idle fee
• Subscription fee
• Membership fee

An EV charging calculator should allow users to include these expenses.

For example:

Energy:

$12.80

Session fee:

$1

Parking:

$2

Total:

$15.80

The electricity cost alone would have understated the final expense.

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Home vs. Public Charging

Consider an EV requiring 400 kWh per month.

Home charging:

$0.15/kWh

Public charging:

$0.40/kWh

If charged entirely at home:

400 × $0.15 = $60

If charged entirely in public:

400 × $0.40 = $160

Difference:

$100 per month

Annual difference:

$1,200

This illustrates the potential financial advantage of home charging.

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Blended Charging

Most drivers may use more than one charging source.

Suppose monthly consumption is 500 kWh.

Home:

350 kWh at $0.15

Public:

150 kWh at $0.40

Home cost:

350 × $0.15 = $52.50

Public cost:

150 × $0.40 = $60

Total:

$112.50

Average effective charging rate:

$112.50 ÷ 500 = $0.225/kWh

A calculator that supports blended charging can provide a more realistic estimate for these drivers.

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Time-of-Use Electricity Rates

Some utilities offer lower electricity prices during certain hours.

For example:

• Off-peak: $0.11/kWh
• Standard: $0.18/kWh
• Peak: $0.30/kWh

Suppose an EV requires 50 kWh.

Off-peak:

50 × $0.11 = $5.50

Standard:

50 × $0.18 = $9.00

Peak:

50 × $0.30 = $15.00

The difference between off-peak and peak charging is $9.50 for a 50 kWh session.

Over dozens of charging sessions, time-of-use pricing can significantly influence annual expenses.

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Smart EV Charging

Smart charging technology can help drivers schedule charging automatically.

Potential goals include:

• Charging during cheaper electricity periods
• Avoiding peak demand
• Using excess solar generation
• Limiting charging during expensive periods
• Managing multiple vehicles

For households with time-of-use electricity plans, smart charging may help reduce energy costs without requiring the driver to manually monitor charging times.

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Solar EV Charging

Solar-powered EV charging can reduce reliance on grid electricity.

Suppose monthly EV energy requirements are:

450 kWh

Solar directly supplies:

200 kWh

Grid electricity supplies:

250 kWh

At $0.18/kWh:

250 × $0.18 = $45

The household’s grid electricity expense for EV charging would be approximately $45 under this simplified calculation.

However, the economic value of solar electricity should consider installation costs and what would otherwise happen to unused solar generation.

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EV Charging With Home Battery Storage

A home battery can potentially store electricity for later use.

An EV owner could use:

• Solar during the day
• Home battery in the evening
• Grid electricity during low-rate periods

However, each energy conversion can involve efficiency losses.

A complete calculation may need to consider:

• Solar production
• Battery capacity
• Battery round-trip efficiency
• EV charging efficiency
• Electricity rates
• Solar export value

This is an advanced scenario, but it illustrates how EV charging economics can become part of a larger household energy strategy.

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Monthly EV Charging Cost

Mileage is the most useful starting point for a monthly calculation.

Suppose:

• Monthly mileage = 1,400 miles
• Efficiency = 29 kWh/100 miles
• Electricity rate = $0.18/kWh
• Charging efficiency = 90%

Energy stored:

1,400 × 29 ÷ 100 = 406 kWh

Grid energy:

406 ÷ 0.90 = 451.11 kWh

Cost:

451.11 × $0.18 = $81.20

Estimated monthly electricity cost:

Approximately $81

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Annual EV Charging Cost

Suppose annual mileage is 16,000 miles.

Efficiency:

29 kWh/100 miles

Battery energy consumed:

16,000 × 29 ÷ 100 = 4,640 kWh

At 90% charging efficiency:

4,640 ÷ 0.90 = 5,155.56 kWh

At $0.18/kWh:

5,155.56 × $0.18 = $928

Estimated annual charging cost:

Approximately $928

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Road Trip Cost Calculation

Road-trip charging is one of the best applications for an EV charging calculator.

Suppose:

• Trip = 1,200 miles
• Efficiency = 31 kWh/100 miles
• Charging efficiency = 90%
• Public charging rate = $0.38/kWh

Energy stored:

1,200 × 31 ÷ 100 = 372 kWh

Grid energy:

372 ÷ 0.90 = 413.33 kWh

Charging cost:

413.33 × $0.38 = $157.07

Estimated public charging expense:

Approximately $157

Additional fees could increase this total.

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Road Trip Starting With a Full Battery

Suppose the vehicle has a 75 kWh battery and starts the trip fully charged.

If the total trip requires 372 kWh of battery energy, the driver may only need to obtain:

372 − 75 = 297 kWh

from charging stops during the journey, assuming the entire initial battery energy is usable for the trip.

At 90% charging efficiency:

297 ÷ 0.90 = 330 kWh

At $0.38/kWh:

330 × $0.38 = $125.40

This can provide a more realistic road-trip estimate than charging the entire trip energy through public stations.

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Why Weather Changes EV Charging Costs

EV energy consumption can change significantly depending on conditions.

Cold weather may increase consumption because of:

• Cabin heating
• Battery heating
• Reduced battery efficiency
• Winter tires
• Cold roads

Hot weather can increase energy consumption through:

• Air conditioning
• Battery cooling
• Thermal management

Suppose normal consumption is:

27 kWh/100 miles

Winter consumption:

35 kWh/100 miles

At $0.18/kWh:

Normal:

$4.86 per 100 miles

Winter:

$6.30 per 100 miles

Difference:

$1.44 per 100 miles

This is why annual EV cost estimates should ideally use real-world data.

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Speed and Charging Costs

Driving speed can influence energy consumption.

Higher speeds generally increase aerodynamic resistance.

For long highway trips, maintaining a moderate speed can improve energy efficiency compared with sustained high-speed driving.

A driver who reduces energy consumption from 34 kWh/100 miles to 29 kWh/100 miles can reduce electricity use substantially.

At $0.20/kWh, the difference is:

5 × $0.20 = $1 per 100 miles

At 20,000 miles:

200 × $1 = $200

Driving style therefore affects energy costs.

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Tire Pressure and Efficiency

Incorrect tire pressure can increase rolling resistance.

Maintaining appropriate tire pressure can help support efficient operation.

Other factors that influence efficiency include:

• Tire type
• Wheel size
• Vehicle load
• Roof accessories
• Trailer towing
• Road conditions

These factors are particularly important for larger EVs and electric trucks.

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Regenerative Braking

Regenerative braking allows an EV to recover some kinetic energy during deceleration.

It can improve efficiency in certain driving conditions.

However, regenerative braking does not eliminate energy consumption.

The vehicle still requires electricity to accelerate, overcome air resistance, climb hills, and operate climate systems.

Therefore, regenerative braking should be considered a factor affecting efficiency rather than a source of free energy.

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EV Charging Cost for Daily Commuting

Suppose a driver travels:

40 miles per day

Efficiency:

30 kWh/100 miles

Daily energy:

40 × 30 ÷ 100 = 12 kWh

At $0.16/kWh:

12 × $0.16 = $1.92

For 22 commuting days:

22 × $1.92 = $42.24

The estimated monthly commuting electricity expense would be approximately $42 before charging losses.

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EV Charging Cost for Long-Distance Commuters

Suppose another driver travels 100 miles every weekday.

At 22 working days:

2,200 miles per month

At 30 kWh/100 miles:

2,200 × 30 ÷ 100 = 660 kWh

At $0.18/kWh:

660 × $0.18 = $118.80

With charging losses:

660 ÷ 0.90 = 733.33 kWh

Cost:

733.33 × $0.18 = $132

This driver could therefore spend approximately $132 per month on electricity for commuting.

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Electric Vehicle Charging Cost for Fleets

Businesses can use EV charging calculators to estimate fleet energy costs.

Suppose a company operates 25 EVs.

Each vehicle travels:

2,000 miles per month

Total fleet mileage:

25 × 2,000 = 50,000 miles

Average efficiency:

32 kWh/100 miles

Monthly energy:

50,000 × 32 ÷ 100 = 16,000 kWh

At $0.14/kWh:

16,000 × $0.14 = $2,240

Annual energy cost:

$2,240 × 12 = $26,880

Charging losses, public charging, demand charges, and infrastructure costs may increase the actual operating expense.

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EV Charging Cost for Delivery Vehicles

Delivery fleets can have particularly high annual mileage.

Suppose an electric delivery vehicle travels 30,000 miles annually and consumes 35 kWh/100 miles.

Annual energy:

30,000 × 35 ÷ 100 = 10,500 kWh

At $0.15/kWh:

10,500 × $0.15 = $1,575

This can be compared with the fuel cost of a gasoline or diesel delivery vehicle.

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Commercial Charging Infrastructure

Businesses should distinguish between electricity cost and charging infrastructure cost.

A commercial EV charging project may include:

• Electrical upgrades
• Chargers
• Installation
• Networking
• Software
• Maintenance
• Demand charges
• Utility connection costs

The electricity cost per kWh is only one part of the overall business case.

For a complete analysis, companies should calculate total cost of ownership for the charging infrastructure as well as vehicle operating costs.

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EV Charging Cost and Vehicle Selection

Charging costs can influence which EV is most economical.

Consider:

Vehicle A

Efficiency:

24 kWh/100 miles

Vehicle B

Efficiency:

34 kWh/100 miles

At $0.20/kWh:

Vehicle A:

$4.80 per 100 miles

Vehicle B:

$6.80 per 100 miles

Difference:

$2 per 100 miles

At 20,000 miles annually:

200 × $2 = $400

Vehicle A would use approximately $400 less electricity per year under these assumptions.

However, buyers should also consider purchase price, insurance, range, depreciation, comfort, charging capability, and other ownership costs.

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How to Choose Inputs for an EV Charging Calculator

For the most useful results, use realistic values.

Battery Capacity

Use usable battery capacity when available.

Starting SOC

Use the actual battery percentage before charging.

Target SOC

Enter the intended stopping percentage.

Electricity Rate

Use the actual rate from the utility bill.

Charging Efficiency

Use a realistic estimate rather than assuming 100%.

Public Charging Rate

Use the current rate charged by the specific network.

Mileage

Use actual monthly or annual driving distance.

Vehicle Efficiency

Use real-world consumption when possible.

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Conservative EV Charging Estimates

If you are uncertain about your actual consumption, it can be useful to create three estimates.

Efficient Scenario

Low energy consumption and inexpensive electricity.

Typical Scenario

Average real-world efficiency and standard electricity pricing.

High-Cost Scenario

Higher energy consumption, expensive charging, and additional fees.

For example:

Scenario	Annual Energy	Effective Rate	Annual Cost
Low	4,000 kWh	$0.14	$560
Typical	4,800 kWh	$0.18	$864
High	5,500 kWh	$0.28	$1,540

This approach provides a more useful financial range than a single estimate.

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How an EV Calculator Helps With Purchasing Decisions

Before buying an EV, prospective owners can estimate:

• Monthly electricity costs
• Annual electricity costs
• Home charging costs
• Public charging costs
• Road-trip costs
• Cost per mile
• Gasoline savings
• Charging equipment expenses

For example, a buyer could compare an EV requiring 26 kWh/100 miles with one requiring 34 kWh/100 miles.

Over 15,000 miles, the difference is:

15,000 × (34 − 26) ÷ 100

= 1,200 kWh

At $0.18/kWh:

1,200 × $0.18 = $216

The more efficient EV would save approximately $216 per year in electricity under these assumptions.

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EV Charging Calculator for Household Budgeting

An EV can become a predictable monthly expense if charging patterns are consistent.

A household can estimate:

Daily Cost

Daily mileage × efficiency × electricity rate

Weekly Cost

Daily cost × driving days

Monthly Cost

Monthly mileage × efficiency × electricity rate

Annual Cost

Annual mileage × efficiency × electricity rate

Including charging losses makes these estimates more realistic.

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Reducing EV Charging Costs

Drivers can potentially reduce charging expenses by:

Charging During Lower-Rate Periods

Use off-peak electricity when available.

Charging at Home

Home electricity may cost less than public charging.

Improving Driving Efficiency

Moderate acceleration and highway speeds can reduce energy consumption.

Maintaining Tires

Proper tire pressure can help reduce rolling resistance.

Planning Road Trips

Choosing cost-effective charging locations can reduce expenses.

Using Solar

Where economically practical, solar generation can offset some grid electricity consumption.

Comparing Public Charging Rates

Different networks and locations may have different prices.

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What an Advanced EV Charging Calculator Should Include

A comprehensive tool could include:

Battery Calculator

Estimate energy required based on battery capacity and SOC.

Cost Per Charge

Calculate the cost of a charging session.

Cost Per Mile

Estimate electricity expense for each mile.

Monthly Cost

Estimate household charging expenses.

Annual Cost

Project yearly electricity consumption.

Home vs. Public Comparison

Compare charging sources.

Gasoline Comparison

Compare EV electricity costs with gasoline fuel costs.

Road Trip Calculator

Estimate charging expenses for long-distance travel.

Solar Charging Calculator

Estimate grid electricity displaced by solar.

Fleet Calculator

Estimate commercial EV fleet energy expenses.

These features make an EV charging calculator much more useful than a simple full-charge estimator.

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Frequently Asked Questions

How much does it cost to charge an EV?

It depends on the battery size, electricity rate, amount of energy added, charging efficiency, and charging fees.

What is the cheapest way to charge an EV?

For many drivers, home charging during inexpensive electricity periods can be among the lower-cost options. Actual costs depend on local rates and available charging arrangements.

Does charging speed change the cost?

Charging speed primarily changes how quickly the vehicle receives electricity. However, fast public charging can have a higher electricity price than home charging.

How do I calculate EV charging cost per mile?

First calculate electricity cost per 100 miles:

kWh/100 miles × electricity price

Then divide by 100.

Can I calculate the cost from 20% to 80%?

Yes. Multiply battery capacity by the difference between the starting and ending percentages.

Should charging losses be included?

Yes, if you want a more realistic estimate of electricity purchased from the grid.

Is public charging more expensive?

It can be, particularly at some high-speed charging stations, but prices vary.

Can I use the calculator for road trips?

Yes. Enter trip distance, vehicle efficiency, charging efficiency, and expected charging rates.

Can I compare an EV with a gasoline car?

Yes. Compare electricity cost per mile with gasoline cost per mile.

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Final Thoughts

The cost of charging an electric vehicle is influenced by far more than battery size.

The most important factors include:

• Electricity price
• Vehicle efficiency
• Battery capacity
• Starting and ending state of charge
• Charging efficiency
• Charging location
• Public charging fees
• Driving distance
• Weather
• Driving style

An Electric Vehicle Charging Cost Calculator brings these factors together into a simple financial estimate.

For daily drivers, the calculator can show the cost of commuting. For households, it can provide monthly and annual transportation budgets. For EV buyers, it can compare the operating costs of different vehicles. For travelers, it can estimate road-trip charging expenses. For businesses, it can help forecast fleet energy costs.

The most useful approach is to avoid generic assumptions whenever possible. Use the vehicle’s actual efficiency, the household’s actual electricity rate, realistic charging losses, and the public charging prices that the driver is likely to encounter.

A well-designed calculator can then provide several valuable measurements:

Cost per charge

How much a particular charging session costs.

Cost per mile

How much electricity is required for each mile.

Cost per 100 miles

A useful comparison against gasoline vehicles.

Monthly cost

How much electricity the vehicle may add to the household budget.

Annual cost

The projected yearly charging expense.

Road-trip cost

The estimated electricity expense for long-distance travel.

Understanding these numbers helps EV owners move beyond broad claims about electric vehicle savings and develop a personalized view of transportation costs.

Electricity rates will continue to vary by region and time of day, while EV efficiency will continue to improve as vehicle technology develops. As a result, the ability to calculate charging costs accurately will remain an important part of electric vehicle ownership.

Whether you are researching your first EV, already own one, operate an electric fleet, or simply want to compare electric transportation with gasoline, an Electric Vehicle Charging Cost Calculator provides a practical starting point for making informed financial decisions.